Annals of Clinical Nutrition and Metabolism

Association of early parenteral energy provision with serum phosphorus decline and phosphorus-based refeeding syndrome in critically ill patients with liver cirrhosis: a Korean retrospective observational study: Jee Young Lee, Yeo Kon Kye, Kwang Il Seo, Kyung Won Seo, Sooyong Lee, Jesang Yu; Ann Clin Nutr Metab 2026;18(2):162-172. Published online July 31, 2026; DOI: https://doi.org/10.15747/ACNM.26.0055

Graphical Abstract Abstract PDF: Purpose
Critically ill patients with liver cirrhosis are vulnerable to malnutrition and refeeding-related electrolyte disturbances, particularly with rapid caloric advancement. As hypophosphatemia is a key feature of refeeding syndrome (RFS) and phosphorus homeostasis may be impaired in cirrhosis, the association of early parenteral energy provision with serum phosphorus decline and RFS was evaluated in cirrhotic ICU patients.
Methods
This retrospective study included 72 adults with liver cirrhosis admitted to a tertiary intensive care unit (ICU) between January 2021 and August 2024. Parenteral energy intake was assessed at emergency department (ED) and on ICU days 1 and 2. Serum phosphorus reduction was defined as the percentage decrease from baseline to the nadir within 5 ICU days. Phosphorus-based RFS was defined per the 2020 ASPEN consensus as a ≥10% phosphorus decrease after reinitiating or increasing energy provision, graded as mild, moderate, or severe.
Results
Phosphorus-based RFS occurred in 53 patients (73.6%), including severe RFS in 35 (48.6%). ICU day 2 caloric intake per body weight correlated with phosphorus reduction (r=0.346, P=0.003) and was independently associated with greater decline (P=0.011) and with meeting RFS criteria (odds ratio, 1.19; 95% CI, 1.06–1.36; P=0.007), along with ED glucose load (P=0.001). ROC analysis showed modest discrimination (AUC 0.7061; cutoff, 10.92 kcal/kg/day).
Conclusion
Higher caloric delivery on ICU day 2 was associated with greater phosphorus decline and RFS in cirrhotic ICU patients. These exploratory associations do not establish causality, and the cutoff requires external validation. Monitoring caloric delivery and serial electrolytes may support safer parenteral nutrition.

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Liver Cirrhosis and Sarcopenia: Hye Yeon Chon, Tae Hee Lee; Ann Clin Nutr Metab 2022;14(1):2-9. Published online June 1, 2022; DOI: https://doi.org/10.15747/ACNM.2022.14.1.2

Malnutrition is one of the most common complications in patients with liver cirrhosis. In previous studies, cirrhotic patients with severe malnutrition have been associated with higher morbidity and mortality rates before and after liver transplantation. Frailty and sarcopenia are phenotypes of severe malnutrition that have been associated with complications requiring hospitalization or mortality during the wait for transplantation in patients with cirrhosis. Tools for evaluating frailty include the Activities of Daily Living scale, the Karnofsky Performance Status scale, and the Liver Frailty Index. Diagnosed by using computed tomography, sarcopenia is measured with the skeletal muscle index at L3 and is normalized by height. Nutritional status should be evaluated within the first 24~48 hours of hospitalization in every patient with cirrhosis. Among the various available screening tools, the Royal Free Hospital-Nutritional Prioritizing Tool proposed in the UK is recommended. Nutritional counseling with a multidisciplinary team is recommended to improve long-term survival in patients with cirrhosis. Multidisciplinary nutrition management should include evaluating nutritional status and providing guidance for achieving nutritional goals. Most guidelines suggest a calorie intake of 25~35 kcal/kg/day, and the recommended protein intake is 1.2~1.5 g/kg/day. One beneficial technique for patients is to divide the total recommended intake across four to five daily meals, including a nighttime snack. The principles of nutritional intervention in cirrhotic patients are not different from those in noncirrhotic patients. For improvement of sarcopenia, a strategic approach including physical activity and exercise, hormone replacement therapy, ammonia-lowering agents, and treatment of underlying liver disease is required.

Citations

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Liver fibrosis index and mortality in metabolic dysfunction–associated steatotic liver disease: a Korean cohort study
Yesung Lee, Woncheol Lee
Scientific Reports.2025;[Epub] CrossRef

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Nutritional Management in Patients with Liver Dysfunction: Tae Hee Lee; Surg Metab Nutr 2017;8(1):1-6. Published online June 30, 2017; DOI: https://doi.org/10.18858/smn.2017.8.1.1

Abstract PDF: Liver disease and nutritional status are known to affect each other. When liver disease is severe, patients become more malnourished and have a worse prognosis. Adequate nutritional support for patients with liver diseases can improve a patient’s condition and prognosis. In acute liver failure, malnutrition is uncommon, and the disease prognosis is determined within a short time. Patients with acute liver failure may survive and recover if they receive a transplant. Considerations should be given to the management of glucose intolerance and hyperammonemia. However, well-designed clinical trials are still lacking until now. In the case of liver cirrhosis, malnutrition may occur due to a variety of causes, and as in other diseases, oral or enteral nutrition is preferred to parenteral nutrition. Even if esophageal varices are present, it is possible to install a feeding tube. However, in the presence of ascites, PEG (percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy) becomes contraindicated due to risk of complications. Calorie intake of 30~35 Kcal/kg/day and protein intake of 1.2 to 1.5 g/kg/day are appropriate. Protein restriction should not be necessary unless hepatic encephalopathy is severe. Late evening snacking and intake of branched chain amino acids can be helpful.

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