Department of Surgery, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Division of Hepatobiliary and Pancreatic Surgery, Department of Surgery, Severance Hospital, Seoul, Korea
Copyright: © The Korean Society of Surgical Metabolism and Nutrition
This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Factor | Mechanisms |
---|---|
Inadequate nutrient intake | ↑Levels of tumor necrosis factor-α and leptin → loss of appetite Ascites → impaired gastric expansion → early satiety, delayed gastric emptying, bloating, abdominal distention Hepatic encephalopathy → altered consciousness with decreased oral intake Alcohol intake replaces nutrition Nausea and vomiting Restrictive diets (low-sodium, low-protein, fluid restriction) Altered taste perception (zinc deficiency) Socioeconomic constraints |
Metabolic alterations | Altered glucose, lipid, and protein metabolism Altered pattern of energy consumption Decreased glycogen levels and reduced ability to store nutrients Insulin resistance |
Malabsorption | Bile salt deficiency in cholestatic liver disease and cholestasis Small bowel bacterial overgrowth Portal hypertensive enteropathy |
Assessment Tool | Method | Strengths | Limitations |
---|---|---|---|
24-Hour recall | • Participant recalls all foods and beverages consumed over the previous 24 hours • Used to estimate protein-calorie intake |
• Low cost • Quick • No equipment required |
• May be inaccurate in those with poor memory or encephalopathy • Underreporting of portions and food items consumed may occur in women, those with body issues, or those who are overweight |
Food frequency questionnaire | • Participant is given a list of foods/beverages and indicates how frequently these foods are consumed | • Low cost • Quick |
• May not represent foods typically consumed • High level of participant literacy required • Does not provide data on portion sizes or actual protein-energy intake |
Calorie count | • A healthcare professional calculates protein-energy intake based on foods consumed | • Does not rely on patient’s recall • Low cost • No equipment required |
• Subjective • Portion sizes may not be standard or well documented • Often relies on nursing staff to complete |
Food diary | • Patient or caregiver records foods eaten • Protein-energy intake is then calculated by a healthcare professional |
• Low cost • Does not require special equipment • Can be very accurate |
• Requires instruction by provider • Requires a higher level of literacy • Subjectivity may lead to inaccuracies • Typically underestimates energy intake • Time-consuming for provider to analyze intake |
Tool | Method | Strengths | Limitations |
---|---|---|---|
Body mass index (BMI) | • Weight (kg)/height (m2) | • Easy to perform • No equipment required • Cost free |
• Inaccurate in patients with ascites or edema unless dry weight is available |
Waist circumference | • Measures abdominal visceral adiposity | • Easily accessible • Low cost • Component involved in diagnosing metabolic syndrome |
• Not accurate in patients with ascites |
Mid-arm circumference (MAC) | • Mid-arm is measured to assess muscle mass | • Low cost • Quick • Requires minimal equipment • Useful for assessing changes in muscle mass over time |
• Not a strong predictor of malnutrition |
Skin fold | • Skin folds are measured using a caliper at various points of the body • Used to assess body fat |
• Low cost • Requires minimal equipment • Number of sites tested improves accuracy |
• Requires training for proper use • Conflicting reports of accuracy in predicting malnutrition in cirrhosis |
Hand grip strength (HGS) | • A hand dynamometer is used to assess grip strength • Decreased grip strength is associated with malnutrition |
• Low cost • Requires a hand-grip dynamometer • Found to better predict complications of cirrhosis over the Subjective Global Assessment, BMI, skin fold, MAC, and BIA |
• Was not found to correlate with Child-Pugh score |
Body cell mass (BCM) | • Validated marker used to assess body composition in the cirrhotic patient | • Very accurate even in the fluid-overloaded patient | • Expensive • Not readily available for clinical use and is typically used as a validation tool when analyzing other anthropometric assessments |
Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) | • Assesses body composition through a low-dose X-ray | • Gold-standard test | • Expensive • Not readily available |
Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) | • Measures body composition via an electrical current that estimates total body water, fat-free mass, and body fat | • Easily accessible • Correlates well with Child-Pugh score • Accurate in patients without ascites |
• Not accurate in patients with ascites |
Air plethysmography | • Measures whole body density and subsequent calculation of body composition | • Noninvasive • Quick, convenient • Requires minimum compliance • Reliable • No water submersion |
• Varies among men and women • Limited availability |
A.S.P.E.N./ESPEN | |
Energy requirement based on dry weight or determined ideal body weight if ascites is present | 25∼40 kcal/kg/d |
A.S.P.E.N. | |
Stable and malnourished | REE×1.2∼1.4 |
Without encephalopathy | REE×1.2∼1.4 1.0∼1.5 g/kg/d protein |
Acute encephalopathy | REE×1.2∼1.4 0.6∼0.8 g/kg/d protein |
ESPEN | |
All stable cirrhosis patients | 35∼40 kcal/kg/d 1.0∼1.5 g/kg/d protein |
Critically Ill | |
ICU malnourished patients at risk for refeeding | 15∼20 kcal/kg/d 1.2 g/kg/d protein |
ICU for maintenance caloric support | 25∼30 kcal/kg/d 1.5 g/kg/d protein |
Catabolic | 35∼50 kcal/kg/d |
Critically ill obese (body mass index <30) | Mifflin–St Jeor equation Indirect calorimetry for comorbidities 1.5∼2.0 g/kg/d protein ideal body weight |
Nutritional problems | Formula characteristics |
---|---|
Malnutrition | Calorically dense |
Altered protein/carbohydrate metabolism | High branched-chain: aromatic amino acid ratio |
Impaired urea synthesis | |
Fat malabsorption | Fat system with MCT oil |
Micronutrient deficiencies | Modified micronutrient profile |
Fluid/sodium retention | Calorically dense, low sodium |
Enteral nutrition formula category | Indications and comments | Relative cost |
---|---|---|
Standard intact protein formulas | • Require normal digestion • Available in a variety of protein and calorie concentrations |
$ |
Nutrient-dense formulas | • Require normal digestion • Generally available as 1.5∼2 kcal/ml concentrations • Useful in patients in whom fluid restriction is needed (eg, hypervolemic hyponatremia, fluid retention, reduced urine output, early satiety, high nutrition requirements) |
$ |
Semi-elemental or partially hydrolyzed formulas | • Useful for patients who have impaired digestion • Available in a variety of protein and calorie concentrations • Often contain peptides and/or medium-chain triglycerides |
$$ |
Elemental formulas | • Useful when digestion is impaired or a very-low-fat formula is preferred • Contain amino acids and dextrose (vs whole proteins and starches) • Usually high in carbohydrate, which could contribute to hyperglycemia in patients with insulin impairment • Usually hypertonic, which can reduce tolerance |
$$$ |
Renal formulas | • Require normal digestion • Useful for patients with renal dysfunction and hyperkalemia or hyperphosphatemia • Usually fluid-restricted with reduced amounts of potassium and phosphorus |
$$ |
Immune-enhancing formulas | • Require normal digestion • Have not been shown to be beneficial in patients with liver disease • Usually contain immune-enhancing nutrients such as fish oil, arginine, RNA • May affect insulin sensitivity and satiety • May temporarily increase serum ammonia levels but do not worsen symptoms of hepatic encephalopathy |
$$$ |
BCAA formulas | • Controversial as to benefit, but American and European guidelines suggest consideration of BCAA formulas in patients with encephalopathy refractory to other treatments or with a protein intolerance • Contain higher proportion of BCAAs and reduced amounts of aromatic amino acids and methionine • Usually have reduced electrolyte content |
$$$ |
Outcome | Cirrhosis | Alcoholic hepatitis | Liver transplantation | Obstructive jaundice |
---|---|---|---|---|
Mortality | 0.85 (0.54, 1.33); 4 (219) | 1.10 (0.61, 1.99); 2 (95) | No data | 0.29 (0.03, 2.41); 1 (60) |
Appearance ascites | No data | No data | No data | No data |
Resolution ascites | 0.86 (0.46, 1.62); 1 (29) | No data | No data | No data |
Gastrointestinal bleeding | 1.17 (0.59, 2.34); 4 (215) | 2.88 (0.70, 11.87); 1 (64) | No data | No data |
Appearance encephalopathy | 3.13 (0.64, 15.34); 2 (121) | 1.03 (0.26, 4.12); 2 (48) | 1.71 (0.46, 6.44); 1 (32) | No data |
Resolution encephalopathy | No data | 1.57 (0.59, 4.13); 2 (47) | No data | No data |
Infections | 0.91 (0.65, 1.29); 4 (211) | 0.96 (0.41, 2.25); 1/64 | 0.46 (0.15, 1.40); 1 (31) | 0.51 (0.18, 1.47); 1 (60) |
Serum bilirubin | 0.37 (0.40, 1.15); 2 (162) | 5.90 (17.54, 5.74); 1 (31) | No data | No data |
Duration of hospitalization | 1.08 (2.65, 4.80); 2/57 | No data | 9.80 (27.66, 8.06); 1 (31) | No data |
Total postoperative complications | N/A | N/A | No data | 0.35 (0.16, 0.91); 1 (60) |
Intra-abdominal postoperative complications | N/A | N/A | No data | 0.46 (0.10, 2.17); 1 (60) |
Postoperative pneumonia | N/A | N/A | No data | 0.38 (0.02, 8.95); 1 (60) |
Postoperative wound infections | N/A | N/A | No data | 0.46 (0.10, 2.17); 1 (60) |
Outcomes | Cirrhosis | Hepatocellular carcinoma | Liver transplantation | Surgery | Hepatitis C treatment |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mortality | 0.53 (0.24, 1.15); 5 (205) | 1.18 (0.95,1.47); 4 (505) | 0.27 (0.06, 1.23); 1 (82) | 1.50 (0.37, 5.98); 3 (136) | 3.11 (0.13, 73.08); 1 (53) |
Appearance ascites | 0.72 (0.36, 1.46); 2 (62) | 0.53 (0.30, 0.87); 2 (286) | No data | No data | No data |
Resolution ascites | 4.16 (0.87, 19.84); 2 (29) | No data | No data | No data | No data |
Gastrointestinal bleeding | 0.87 (0.45, 1.69); 3 (118) | 1.50 (0.53, 4.26); 2 (305) | No data | 1.10 (0.07, 16.43); 1 (44) | No data |
Appearance encephalopathy | 0.87 (0.67, 1.14); 9 (332) | 0.75 (0.38, 1.48); 2 (305) | 0.43 (0.14, 1.32); 1 (29) | Not estimable (no events in 68 patients in 2 trials) | No data |
Resolution encephalopathy | 3.75 (1.15, 12.18) 2 (53) | No data | No data | No data | No data |
Infections | 0.50 (0.24, 1.03); 3 (184) | 0.35 (0.01, 8.34); 1 (84) | No data | 0.86 (0.44, 1.67); 3 (94) | No data |
Serum bilirubin | 0.24 (−2.00, 2.51); 2 (87) | No data | No data | No data | No data |
Duration of hospitalization | −8.00 (−17.54, 1.54); 1 (36) | See text | No data | See text | No data |
Total postoperative complications | N/A | N/A | No data | 0.85 (0.66, 1.10); 4 (162) | N/A |
Intra-abdominal postoperative complications | N/A | N/A | No data | 0.30 (0.05, 1.74); 2 (68) | N/A |
Postoperative pneumonia | N/A | N/A | No data | 0.55 (0.26, 2.29); 2 (68) | N/A |
Postoperative wound infections | N/A | N/A | No data | 0.77 (0.26, 2.29); 2 (68) | N/A |