Warning: mkdir(): Permission denied in /home/virtual/lib/view_data.php on line 81

Warning: fopen(upload/ip_log/ip_log_2024-12.txt): failed to open stream: No such file or directory in /home/virtual/lib/view_data.php on line 83

Warning: fwrite() expects parameter 1 to be resource, boolean given in /home/virtual/lib/view_data.php on line 84
Drug-Induced Vitamin Deficiency
Skip Navigation
Skip to contents

Ann Clin Nutr Metab : Annals of Clinical Nutrition and Metabolism

Search
Advanced Search
OPEN ACCESS
mobile search button mobile menu button

Articles

Page Path
HOME > Ann Clin Nutr Metab > Volume 14(1); 2022 > Article
Review Article Drug-Induced Vitamin Deficiency
Jung Won Jung, Pharm.D.orcid, So Young Park, Pharm.D.orcid, Hyunah Kim, Pharm.D., BCPSorcid

DOI: https://doi.org/10.15747/ACNM.2022.14.1.20
Published online: June 1, 2022

College of Pharmacy, Sookmyung Women’s University, Seoul, Korea

Corresponding author: Hyunah Kim E-mail hyunah@sookmyung.ac.kr ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5533-2040
• Received: May 10, 2022   • Revised: May 17, 2022   • Accepted: May 17, 2022
*Jung Won Jung and So Young Park contributed equally to this manuscript as first authors.

© The Korean Society of Surgical Metabolism and Nutrition and The Korean Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0), which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

  • 34 Views
  • 0 Download
prev next
Full Article

Download PDF Download PDF

  • Drug-induced vitamin depletion can occur in hospitalized patients due to the administration of specific medications, which could potentially adversely affect patient outcomes. Signs and symptoms related to vitamin deficiency while taking certain medications should be monitored carefully and managed appropriately if those deficiencies are clinically significant. This article reviews potential drug-induced vitamin depletion and discusses the evidence supporting vitamin deficiency related to the use of specific medications.
  • Keywords: Drug-related side effects and adverse reactions; Drug interactions; Vitamins
Vitamins are essential organic substances required in small amounts in our body. Vitamins play an important role in maintaining fundamental cellular functions of the body such as energy production and metabolic processes. Each vitamin has unique biochemical and physiologic activities.
Drug-induced vitamin depletion can occur in hospitalized patients as they are generally administered numerous medications to treat their condition(s), some of which are associated with deficiencies in certain vitamins. Although the mechanisms by which vitamin depletion induced by drugs are complex and not well understood, it is necessary to be aware of potential vitamin depletion associated with medication use.
This article reviews potential drug-induced vitamin depletion and the evidence supporting vitamin deficiency related to the use of specific medications.
1. Orlistat
Orlistat is a drug used to treat obesity in conjunction with a low calorie diet. Because orlistat inhibits the absorption of dietary fats by inactivating gastric and pancreatic lipases, the absorption of fat-soluble vitamin A may also be reduced [1]. A previous meta-analysis of 16 clinical trials of orlistat reported that levels of vitamin A were decreased by orlistat treatment [2]. Furthermore, a 4-year randomized controlled trial reported a statistically significant decrease in concentrations of fat-soluble vitamins, including vitamin A, in the orlistat group compared to the placebo group [3]. Therefore, daily intake of multivitamin supplements containing fat-soluble vitamins is recommended at least 2 hours before or after orlistat administration [4].
2. Cholestyramine
Cholestyramine, a bile acid sequestrant, is a cholesterol-lowering agent used to treat dyslipidemia. Cholestyramine lowers cholesterol by inhibiting the absorption of bile acids in the intestine, resulting in conversion of hepatic cholesterol into bile acid [5]. As bile acid plays a critical role in absorbing fat-soluble vitamins, malabsorption of bile acid due to cholestyramine use may lead to vitamin A deficiency. Only a few studies have investigated the clinical effect of vitamin A deficiency induced by bile acid sequestrants [6,7]. Nonetheless, approved product labels support vitamin A supplementation while on cholestyramine for patients susceptible to fat-soluble vitamin deficiencies [8].
1. Furosemide
Furosemide is a loop diuretic used to treat heart failure and hypertension. Furosemide has been shown to induce thiamine deficiency [9,10]. Suggested mechanism is the urinary loss of thiamine due to increased urine flow [11]. Other studies have proposed that furosemide can reduce intracellular thiamine levels by decreasing cellular uptake or intestinal absorption of thiamine [12]. Furosemide is known to cause thiamine deficiency in a dose-dependent manner. Patients with heart failure receiving high-dose furosemide (>80 mg/d) for a prolonged duration (>6 months) are at increased risk of thiamine deficiency [13]. The incidence of thiamine deficiency in patients with chronic heart failure is estimated to range from 21%~98% [14].
2. Fluorouracil
Fluorouracil (or 5-fluorouracil, 5-FU) is a chemotherapeutic agent used to treat various solid tumors including colorectal and gastric cancers. Patients receiving 5-FU have increased thiamine metabolism and therefore decreased thiamine levels [15]. Cases of beriberi or Wernickés encephalopathy, which are neuropsychiatric syndromes caused by thiamine deficiency, have been reported in patients who received chemotherapy including 5-FU [16,17]. It has been proposed that adverse reactions related to 5-FU-induced thiamine deficiency can be reversed by thiamine supplementation [18].
1. Isoniazid and pyrazinamide
Isoniazid (INH) and pyrazinamide are medications used to treat tuberculosis. Pellagra, a multi-system disorder caused by niacin deficiency, has been reported in patients receiving INH and/or pyrazinamide. These agents can interfere with the production of endogenous niacin due to the structural similarity between those drugs and vitamin B3 (niacin) [19]. In addition, it has been suggested that INH depletes niacin by inhibiting the intestinal absorption of niacin [20]. Although pellagra is no longer common due to niacin fortification of foods, patients at higher risk may require close monitoring of INH-induced niacin deficiency [21].
1. Isoniazid
INH is a commonly used anti-tuberculotic agent. INH inhibits mycolic acid synthesis, but also interferes with vitamin B6 synthesis, which is the suspected mechanism of INH-induced peripheral neuropathy. INH is thought to form a complex with pyridoxine, and thus increase the excretion of pyridoxine during treatment [22]. Accordingly, daily pyridoxine supplementation (50~100 mg/d) is recommended to prevent INH-associated pyridoxine deficiency [23]. Higher doses of pyridoxine might be required in those at increased risk of developing peripheral neuropathy, patients receiving higher doses of INH, and those with alcohol dependency, malnutrition, diabetes mellitus, or chronic kidney disease [22, 24].
2. Cycloserine
Cycloserine is a broad-spectrum antibiotic used as a second-line therapy in drug-resistant tuberculosis. Dose-related central nervous system toxicity of cycloserine is associated with pyridoxine deficiency [23]. Cycloserine is known to increase the renal excretion of pyridoxin, thereby increasing pyridoxine requirements during therapy [25]. Accordingly, co-administration of cycloserine and pyridoxine (50 mg per 250 mg of cycloserine) is recommended to decrease cycloserine-related neurotoxicity [26].
3. Anti-epileptic drugs
Anti-epileptic drugs (AEDs) are used to treat epileptic seizures. Several AEDs, including phenytoin and carbamazepine, increase the catabolism of vitamin B6 by their hepatic enzyme-inducing effect [27]. Enzyme-inducing antiepileptic drug (EIAED) use is also associated with decreased levels of pyridoxal 5’-phosphate (PLP), a major active derivative of vitamin B6. One study reported that the prevalence of vitamin B6 deficiency in patients treated with EIAED was 48% [28].
4. Levodopa
Levodopa, a precursor of dopamine, is used to treat Parkinson’s disease and dopamine-responsive dystonia. Levodopa may cause vitamin B6 deficiency through rapid depletion of PLP. The complex formed between levodopa and PLP can inhibit pyridoxal kinase, an enzyme responsible for pyridoxin activation [23]. Thus, vitamin B6 supplementation should be considered for patients on levodopa therapy [29].
5. Theophylline
Theophylline is used to treat respiratory disorders, including asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Theophylline decreases circulating PLP levels by acting as a noncompetitive inhibitor of pyridoxal kinase [23]. This could lead to a decrease in plasma PLP levels and neurological adverse effects, including seizures. One clinical trial showed that patients on theophylline had decreased PLP levels after treatment. In that study, 10 mg pyridoxine was shown to counteract the antagonistic effect of theophylline on vitamin B6 metabolism [30].
1. Anti-epileptic drugs
EIAEDs increase the catabolism of vitamin B7 and the urinary excretion of its metabolites, possibly resulting in vitamin B7 deficiency [31]. Carbamazepine and primidone also contribute to low levels of vitamin B7 by inhibiting the uptake of biotin in the intestine [32]. A previous study reported that patients undergoing long-term anticonvulsant therapy for at least one year had significantly greater urinary excretion of biotin metabolites than the control group. A follow-up study reported similar findings, namely that biotin catabolism was accelerated by antiepileptics, resulting in low levels of vitamin B7 [33,34]. Therefore, supplementation with biotin could help prevent adverse health outcomes related to anticonvulsant-induced biotin deficiency.
2. Lipoic acid
Lipoic acid, also known as thioctic acid, is mainly prescribed for the management of diabetic peripheral neuropathy due to its antioxidant properties [35]. Its cellular uptake across the cell membrane is mediated by sodium-dependent multivitamin transporters (SMVTs), which also transport biotin and pantothenic acid [36]. Since lipoic acid and biotin bind to SMVTs competitively, administration of lipoic acid may decrease the cellular uptake of biotin [37]. Decreased activity of biotin-dependent enzymes in the liver has been reported with chronic administration of lipoic acid. However, it is still unclear whether this mechanism fully explains the adverse pathologic effect of lipoic acid in patients [38]. Biotin supplementation should be considered in patients taking high doses of lipoic acid.
1. Antifolate: methotrexate
Methotrexate (MTX) is a folate antagonist used for cancer and autoimmune disease treatment. Methotrexate is a structural analogue of folate and acts as an antimetabolite by blocking the action of folate in DNA synthesis. Antifolate properties of methotrexate explain the similarity of its adverse effects to the signs and symptoms of folate deficiency [39]. A randomized trial of 113 patients with rheumatoid arthritis receiving 48-week MTX treatment fond decreased serum and erythrocyte folate levels in the MTX plus placebo group as opposed to the MTX plus folic acid group [40]. Accordingly, supplementation with folic acid is recommended to prevent MTX-related toxicities, especially in patients taking low-dose methotrexate for rheumatoid arthritis and psoriasis [41].
2. Antifolate: sulfonamides
Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX) is an antibiotic used to treat infectious diseases. TMP-SMX blocks bacterial biosynthesis of folate, eventually inhibiting bacterial growth. Although uncommon at therapeutic doses, inhibition of folate metabolism by TMP-SMX can cause dose-related leukopenia and megaloblastic anemia. Therefore, TMP-SMX should be given with caution to patients at risk of folate deficiency such as elderly patients, those with malabsorption syndrome, or malnourished patients [42].
Sulfasalazine is a sulfonamide drug with anti-inflammatory properties used to treat ulcerative colitis. Patients taking sulfasalazine can develop folate deficiency as sulfasalazine is known to interfere with intestinal folate absorption. Folate is absorbed mainly through the proton-coupled folate transporter (PCFT), which plays a critical role in folate transport across the membrane of cells lining the proximal small intestine. Sulfasalazine inhibits PCFT-mediated folate transport therefore interferes with the intestinal absorption of folate [43]. Malabsorption of folate due to sulfasalazine can also be explained by inhibition of the enzyme that converts the poly-glutamate forms of tetrahydrofolates into the absorbable form of folate [44]. Therefore, an increase in dietary folate or folate supplementation may be required in patients taking sulfasalazine.
3. Antiepileptic drugs
Studies have suggested that EIAEDs can reduce levels of serum folate [45]. Deficiency offolate, an important cofactor in the metabolism of homocysteine, can occur through induction of hepatic enzymes. Folate supplementation can potentially prevent folate deficiency and cardiovascular events caused by high levels of homocysteine in patients with epilepsy [46].
1. Proton pump inhibitors & H2-receptor antagonists
Proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) and H2-receptor antagonists (H2RAs) are widely used acid-suppressive agents. Both are approved for various acid-related disorders, including gastroesophageal reflux disease, peptic ulcer disease, and Zollinger-Ellison syndrome. However, these drugs are well-known to reduce serum vitamin B12 levels with prolonged use. Loss of gastric acid due to PPI or H2RA use inhibits the conversion of pepsinogen to pepsin. As pepsin promotes the release of vitamin B12 from ingested proteins, low levels of gastric acid can consequently lead to malabsorption of vitamin B12 in the body [47].
Several studies have reported an association between long-term use of gastric acid-lowering agents and low serum vitamin B12 levels [48]. A case-control study found that taking a PPI or H2RA for more than two years was significantly associated with an increased risk of vitamin B12 deficiency (odds ratio 1.65 for PPI, 1.25 for H2RA, respectively) [49]. Similar results were found in the elderly population using a PPI or H2RA for more than 12 months [50]. However, further randomized controlled trials using multiple biomarkers of vitamin B12 status are needed to confirm these associations [51].
2. Metformin
Metformin is an oral hypoglycemic agent used to treat type 2 diabetes that is known to decrease serum vitamin B12 levels. Vitamin B12 forms a complex with intrinsic factor (IF) before its absorption in the duodenum. Metformin is thought to cause vitamin B12 deficiency through inhibiting its absorption by interfering with IF-vitamin B12 complex binding to its receptor [52].
Numerous studies have reported metformin-induced vitamin B12 deficiency. In a randomized controlled trial, a 19% decrease in vitamin B12 level with metformin treatment was found during 52 months of follow-up [53]. Another study reported that vitamin B12 deficiency (≤203 pg/mL) occurred more frequently in participants taking metformin than the placebo group [52]. The dose and duration of metformin use were also found to be associated with vitamin B12 deficiency [54,55].
Accordingly, the 2022 American Diabetes Association guidelines recommend regular measurement of vitamin B12 levels in patients taking metformin, especially those with anemia or peripheral neuropathy [56]. The efficacy of vitamin B12 supplementation has also been studied. A recent randomized controlled trial of patients with diabetic neuropathy taking metformin for at least 4 years reported that treatment with oral vitamin B12 (1 mg/d) for 1 year not only significantly increased vitamin B12 levels, but also improved neurophysiological parameters [57].
3. Colchicine
Colchicine is a medication used to prevent or treat gout flares in patients with contraindications to or intolerance of glucocorticoids and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Colchicine has been studied as a possible cause of vitamin B12 deficiency due to its ability to inhibit vitamin B12 absorption by reducing IF receptor levels in the ileum [58]. However, only a few studies have reported significant colchicine-induced vitamin B12 deficiency in humans [58,59].
1. Corticosteroids
Corticosteroids are used to reduce inflammation in various disease states. Corticosteroids may reduce calcium absorption and impair vitamin D metabolism. Dexamethasone is known to increase renal expression of vitamin D-24-hydroxylase, the enzyme that degrades the metabolites of vitamin D [60]. Vitamin D deficiency induced by corticosteroids can lead to an imbalance in bone homeostasis, resulting in bone loss or osteoporosis [61]. A representative study of the US population reported that those who used steroids within the previous 30 days had a two-fold higher risk of developing vitamin D deficiency than steroid non-users [62].
2. Antiepileptic drugs
There is growing evidence that AEDs have a negative impact on vitamin D status and bone health. Increased hepatic metabolism due to AEDs contributes to lower vitamin D levels [63]. Among AEDs, phenytoin, phenobarbital and carbamazepine are known to induce CYP3A4, the enzyme involved in the catabolism of vitamin D into its inactive form [64]. One cross-sectional study found lower vitamin D levels and bone marrow density in chronic users of AEDs compared with matched controls. The use of phenytoin was related to a greater incidence of fractures [65]. The prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in pediatric patients on AEDs was 32% [66].
3. Others
As described in the vitamin A section, orlistat and bile acid sequestrants can induce vitamin D deficiency, with vitamin D being one of the fat-soluble vitamins [67].
Orlistat is a weight-loss agent that reduces the absorption of dietary fats by inhibiting the action of lipases within the gastrointestinal tract. Due to its mechanism of action, orlistat may disturb the absorption of lipophilic vitamins, including vitamin D. Clinical trials have shown that patients treated with orlistat compared to the placebo group showed decreased serum vitamin D concentrations after treatment [68].
Bile acid sequestrants, including colestipol and cholestyramine, are used to lower cholesterol levels. These agents could also interfere with the absorption of lipid-soluble vitamins, including vitamin D.
1. Antibiotics
Antibiotics are widely used to treat various bacterial infections. These drugs can contribute to a low levels of vitamin K by killing intestinal bacteria that produce vitamin K [69]. In particular, 2nd and 3rd generation cephalosporins containing N-methylthiotetrazole (NMTT) side chains are known to induce vitamin K depletion by impairing recycling of vitamin K [70].
One study reported that the incidence of vitamin K-related hypoprothrombinemia ranged from 3.7% to 64% in patients taking NMTT-containing antibiotics [71]. Another prospective study of children who received antibiotics for at least 14 days found that vitamin K deficiency occurred in 15% of the study population [72]. In addition, a nested case-control study reported an increased risk of hemorrhagic events in patients on cephalosporins, which have a known vitamin K-interfering effect. The results from these studies highlight the importance of close monitoring of vitamin K levels in patients who are at higher risk of bleeding [73].
2. Orlistat
As described in the vitamin A section, orlistat interferes with the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins, including vitamin K, by inactivating gastric and pancreatic lipases.
3. Cholestyramine
Bile acid sequestrants interfere with the absorption of bile acid in the intestine. As described in the vitamin A section, malabsorption of fat-soluble vitamins, including vitamin K, is one of the concerns when using cholestyramine. However, there are only a few reports of cholestyramine-induced vitamin K deficiency and subsequent bleeding events [74,75].
Table 1 lists specific medications related to vitamin depletion. The literature used to evaluate vitamin deficiencies is summarized in Table 2.
Drug-induced vitamin depletion has been reported in patients taking specific medications and could cause potential problems in clinical practice. Signs and symptoms related to vitamin deficiency while taking certain medications should be monitored carefully and managed appropriately if these deficiencies are clinically significant.
Although there is limited evidence regarding medication-induced vitamin depletion, an understanding of the potential risks of drug-related vitamin deficiency could help minimize adverse effects and optimize nutrition and pharmacotherapy planning, thereby improving patient outcomes.
Table 1
Drug-induced vitamin deficiencies
Vitamin depletion Causative medications
Lipid-soluble
Vitamin A Orlistat, cholestyramine
Vitamin D Corticosteroids, antiepileptic drugs, orlistat, cholestyramine
Vitamin K Antibiotics, orlistat, cholestyramine
Water-soluble
Vitamin B1 Furosemide, fluorouracil
Vitamin B3 Isoniazid, pyrazinamide
Vitamin B6 Isoniazid, cycloserine, antiepileptic drugs, levodopa, theophylline
Vitamin B7 Antiepileptic drugs, lipoic acid
Vitamin B9 Methotrexate, sulfonamides, antiepileptic drugs
Vitamin B12 Acid-suppressive agents (proton pump inhibitors, H2-receptor antagonists), metformin, colchicine
Table 2
Literature evaluations of drug-induced vitamin deficiencies
Vitamin depleted Causative medications Study design Patients (or participants) Interventions Relevant study outcomes Results References
Lipid-soluble
Vitamin A Orlistat Meta-analysis 10,631 participants from 16 trials (average BMI: 36.3 kg/m2) Orlistat 120 mg three times daily Levels of fat‐soluble vitamins (A, D, E) and beta‐carotene Orlistat therapy was associated with lower fat‐soluble vitamin and beta‐carotene levels [2]
RCT Patients aged 30~60 years with BMI ≥30 kg/m2 Orlistat 120 mg three times daily for 4 years Changes in plasma levels of fat-soluble vitamins Significant decreases in vitamin A in the orlistat group compared with the placebo group (−0.22 vs. −0.19 μmol/L, P<0.05) [3]
Cholestyramine RCT 303 patients with hypercholesterolemia Dietary advice plus cholestyramine (8 to 16 g/d for 2 months) Serum concentrations of vitamin E, β-carotene, lycopene, and vitamin A 40% decrease in mean serum β-carotene (P<0.001) and 5% increase in vitamin A (P<0.001) after 2 months on cholestyramine [7]
Vitamin D Corticosteroids Cross-sectional NHANES participants 2001~2006 (n=22,650) – Prevalence of low 25(OH)D level (<10 ng/mL) 11% in steroid users vs. 5% in non-users (P=0.009) [62]
AEDs Cross-sectional 58 patients on antiepileptic therapy – Serum 25(OH)D level
Frequency of 25(OH)D <20 ng/dL		 Lower levels of 25(OH)D in AED users vs. control patients (28.2±10.3 ng/mL vs. 34.4±12.7 ng/mL; P=0.02)
20 (34.4%) of AED users vs. 2 (6.8%) of controls had 25(OH)D levels <20 ng/dL (P=0.01)		 [65]
Orlistat RCT 30 obese subjects with a mean BMI of 47 kg/m2 Orlistat 120 mg three times daily for 1 year Serum levels of calcitriol 140±39 pmol/L at baseline vs. 111±45 pmol/L after 1 year of orlistat therapy (P<0.05) [68]
Cholestyramine RCT 268 men aged 42~68 years Cholestyramine vs. placebo for 7~10 years Plasma levels of calcitriol 99±190 pmol/L in placebo vs. 91±56 pmol/L in the cholestyramine group (NS) [67]
Vitamin K Antibiotics RCT Critically ill children who received antibiotic therapy for a minimum of 14 days Single dose of prophylactic vitamin K on day 1 of antibiotic therapy Incidence of vitamin K deficiency 15% of the total study population
13.3% vs. 16.7% in those with or without prophylactic vitamin K treatment, respectively (P=0.79)		 [72]
Nested case-control Patients aged ≥20 years with or without a hemorrhagic event after using cephalosporins – Risk of a hemorrhagic event aOR 1.71 (95% CI, 1.42~2.06) with the use of cephalosporins [73]
Orlistat RCT Patients aged 30~60 years with BMI ≥30 kg/m2 Orlistat 120 mg three times daily for 4 years Changes in plasma levels of the fat-soluble vitamins Significant decreases in vitamin K1 in the orlistat group compared with the placebo group (−0.08 vs. 0.07 μg/L, P<0.001) [3]
Water-soluble
Vitamin B1 Furosemide Prospective cohort 50 patients >18 years of age with an ICU stay of at least 48 hours Diuretic group (furosemide 20~160 mg/d) vs. control group Mean serum thiamin levels in the baseline and post–ICU admission days 2, 5, and 10 The diuretic group had significantly lower serum thiamin levels than the control (15.5±10.7 vs. 46.8±29.5 ng/mL; P<0.001 at baseline, 23.2±15.4 ng/mL vs. 49.0±38.0 ng/mL; P< 0.05 on day 2) [10]
Fluorouracil Retrospective chart review 18 patients developed Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome during cancer treatment (5 of whom were taking fluorouracil) – Serum thiamin concentration All patients who measured serum thiamine level (n=16) had abnormally low levels of serum thiamine (<7 nmol/L) [17]
Vitamin B3 Isoniazid, pyrazinamide Case report 69-year-old female with cardiac, lung, and cutaneous sarcoidosis – – Decreased serum nicotinic acid levels (4.5 μg/dL) after isoniazid therapy [21]
Vitamin B6 Isoniazid Single-arm clinical trial 20 patients with pulmonary tuberculosis One week of therapy including isoniazid Plasma levels of PLP Decreased PLP levels in 18 patients (15 nmol/L at baseline vs. 11 nmol/L at 1 year, P<0.001) [24]
AEDs Cross-sectional Patients with epilepsy Converted from an inducing AED (phenytoin, carbamazepine) to a non- inducing AED (levetiracetam, lamotrigine, or topiramate) Prevalence of low vitamin B6 (<5 ng/mL) 16/33 (48%) with epilepsy vs. 1/11 (9%) of normal subjects (P<0.05) had low vitamin B6 levels
Only 21% of patients had a low vitamin B6 level after switching to a non-inducing AED (P<0.05)		 [28]
Levodopa Case report A 75-year-old man with advanced Parkinson’s disease Levodopa/carbidopa 200/20 mg/d for 45 months Serum vitamin B6 levels were undetectably low (<2.0 ng/mL) but normalized after vitamin B6 supplementation [29]
Theophylline Single-arm clinical trial 7 healthy males 15 weeks of theophylline treatment Mean plasma and erythrocyte PLP levels Erythrocyte PLP levels declined from 303.3±73.2 pmoL/g to 185.1±69.2 pmoL/g within 52 days of treatment (P=0.015)
Plasma PLP levels declined from 62.6±26.8 nmol/L to 29.7±14.1 nmol/L within 32 days of treatment (P=0.015)		 [30]
Vitamin B7 AEDs Cross-sectional 12 adults with seizures requiring AEDs for more than 1 year AEDs (carbamazepine, phenytoin, phenobarbital, valproic acid, and felbamate) Urinary excretion of biotin metabolites There was 2.5-fold greater urinary excretion of biotin metabolites in the anticonvulsant-treated group than the control group [33]
Vitamin B9 Methotrexate RCT 113 patients with rheumatoid arthritis Methotrexate of 7.5~25 mg/wk with or without folate supplement Plasma homocysteine and folate levels A decrease in serum folate level by 4.1 nmol/L (95% CI, –7.6 to –0.6) and a 3.6 μmol/L (95% CI, 1.7 to 5.6) increase in homocysteine [40]
Sulfonamides Cross-sectional 23 outpatients with ulcerative colitis treated with sulfasalazine vs. 20 healthy controls – Blood concentrations of folate UC patients had significantly lower folate concentrations than controls (9.8±7.3 pmol/mL vs. 23.5±9.6 pmol/mL, P=0.015) [44]
AEDs Prospective AED-treated patients (n=2,730) vs. AED-untreated patients with epilepsy (n=170) vs. healthy controls (n=200) AEDs (carbamazepine, gabapentin, oxcarbazepine, phenytoin, primidone, or valproate) Mean serum folate level Mean folate level was 6.0±3.5 ng/mL in the AED-treated group vs. 6.6±3.7 ng/mL in untreated patients (P=0.044) [45]
Vitamin B12 Acid-suppressive agents (PPIs, H2RAs) Meta-analysis Four case–control studies and one observational study Prolonged acid-suppressive agents use Risk of vitamin B12 deficiency HR 1.83 (95% CI, 1.36~2.46) [48]
Case-control Patients aged ≥20 years – Risk of vitamin B12 deficiency OR 1.65 (95% CI, 1.58~1.73) with ≥2 years use of PPIs
OR 1.25 (95% CI, 1.17~1.34) with ≥2 years use of H2RAs		 [49]
Case-control Patients aged ≥65 years – Risk of vitamin B12 deficiency OR 4.45 (95% CI, 1.47~13.34) with ≥12 months use of H2RAs and/or PPIs [50]
Metformin RCT Patients with type 2 diabetes under insulin treatment Metformin 850 mg or placebo three times a day for 4.3 years Percentage change in vitamin B12 from baseline 19% decrease in vitamin B12 level compared with placebo (P<0.001) [53]
RCT Impaired glucose tolerance and FBG of 95~125 mg/dL, aged ≥25 years, BMI ≥24 kg/m2 Metformin 850 mg or placebo twice daily Incidence of vitamin B12 deficiency (≤203 pg/mL) 4.3% of patients in the metformin group vs. 2.3% of patients in the placebo group had vitamin B12 deficiency at the 5-year follow-up (P=0.02) [54]
Nested case-control Patients with diabetes receiving metformin treatment – Risk of vitamin B12 deficiency aOR 2.88 (P<0.001) with 1 g/d metformin dose increment
aOR 2.39 (P=0.001) for those patients using metformin for ≥3 years		 [55]

BMI = body mass index; RCT = randomized clinical trial; NHANES = National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey; NS = not significant; 25(OH)D = 25-hydroxyvitamin D3; AEDs = antiepileptic drugs; ICU = intensive care unit; PLP = pyridoxal phosphate; PPIs = proton pump inhibitors; H2RAs = H2-receptor antagonists; FBG = fasting blood glucose; HR = hazard ratio; OR = odds ratio; aOR = adjusted odds ratio; CI = confidence interval.

  • 1. Qi X. Review of the clinical effect of orlistat. IOP Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng 2018;301:012063. ArticlePDF
  • 2. Padwal RS, Rucker D, Li SK, Curioni C, Lau DCW. 2003;Long-term pharmacotherapy for obesity and overweight. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 4:CD004094. ArticlePubMed
  • 3. Torgerson JS, Hauptman J, Boldrin MN, Sjöström L. 2004;XENical in the prevention of diabetes in obese subjects (XENDOS) study. A randomized study of orlistat as an adjunct to lifestyle changes for the prevention of type 2 diabetes in obese patients. Clin Diabetol 5:95-104.
  • 4. Genentech. XENICAL (orlistat) capsules for oral use [Internet]. 2015. U.S. Food and Drug Administration; Silver Spring (MD): Available from: https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2015/020766s035lbl.pdf. [cited 2022 May 8
  • 5. Einarsson K, Ericsson S, Ewerth S, Reihnér E, Rudling M, Ståhlberg D, et al. Bile acid sequestrants: mechanisms of action on bile acid and cholesterol metabolism. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1991;40 Suppl 1:S53-8. ArticlePubMedPDF
  • 6. Sadowski DC, Camilleri M, Chey WD, Leontiadis GI, Marshall JK, Shaffer EA, et al. Canadian Association of Gastroenterology clinical practice guideline on the management of bile acid diarrhea. J Can Assoc Gastroenterol 2020;3:e10-27. PubMed
  • 7. Elinder LS, Hådell K, Johansson J, Mølgaard J, Holme I, Olsson AG, et al. Probucol treatment decreases serum concentrations of diet-derived antioxidants. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1995;15:1057-63. ArticlePubMed
  • 8. Lexicomp. Lexi-Drugs [Internet]. Hudson (OH): Wolters Kluwer Health; Available from: http://online.lexi.com. [cited 2022 May 8
  • 9. Hanninen SA, Darling PB, Sole MJ, Barr A, Keith ME. The prevalence of thiamin deficiency in hospitalized patients with congestive heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol 2006;47:354-61. ArticlePubMed
  • 10. Gundogan K, Akbudak IH, Bulut K, Temel S, Sungur M, Guven M, et al. Thiamin status in adults receiving chronic diuretic therapy prior to admission to a medical intensive care unit: a pilot study. Nutr Clin Pract 2019;34:565-71. ArticlePubMedPDF
  • 11. Rieck J, Halkin H, Almog S, Seligman H, Lubetsky A, Olchovsky D, et al. Urinary loss of thiamine is increased by low doses of furosemide in healthy volunteers. J Lab Clin Med 1999;134:238-43. ArticlePubMed
  • 12. Zangen A, Botzer D, Zangen R, Shainberg A. Furosemide and digoxin inhibit thiamine uptake in cardiac cells. Eur J Pharmacol 1998;361:151-5. ArticlePubMed
  • 13. DiNicolantonio JJ, Niazi AK, Lavie CJ, O'Keefe JH, Ventura HO. Thiamine supplementation for the treatment of heart failure: a review of the literature. Congest Heart Fail 2013;19:214-22. PubMed
  • 14. Saif MW. Is there a role for thiamine in the management of congestive heart failure? South Med J 2003;96:114-5. ArticlePubMed
  • 15. Rosen A, van Kuilenburg A, Assmann B, Kuhlen M, Borkhardt A. Severe encephalopathy, lactic acidosis, vegetative instability and neuropathy with 5-fluorouracil treatment - pyrimidine degradation defect or beriberi? Case Rep Oncol 2011;4:371-6. ArticlePubMedPMC
  • 16. Cho IJ, Chang HJ, Lee KE, Won HS, Choi MY, Nam EM, et al. A case of Wernicke's encephalopathy following fluorouracil-based chemotherapy. J Korean Med Sci 2009;24:747-50. ArticlePubMedPMC
  • 17. Isenberg-Grzeda E, Alici Y, Hatzoglou V, Nelson C, Breitbart W. Nonalcoholic thiamine-related encephalopathy (Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome) among inpatients with cancer: a series of 18 cases. Psychosomatics 2016;57:71-81. ArticlePubMedPMC
  • 18. Isenberg-Grzeda E, Shen MJ, Alici Y, Wills J, Nelson C, Breitbart W. High rate of thiamine deficiency among inpatients with cancer referred for psychiatric consultation: results of a single site prevalence study. Psychooncology 2017;26:1384-9. ArticlePubMedPMCPDF
  • 19. Bilgili SG, Karadag AS, Calka O, Altun F. Isoniazid-induced pellagra. Cutan Ocul Toxicol 2011;30:317-9. ArticlePubMed
  • 20. Prabhu D, Dawe RS, Mponda K. Pellagra a review exploring causes and mechanisms, including isoniazid-induced pellagra. Photodermatol Photoimmunol Photomed 2021;37:99-104. ArticlePubMedPDF
  • 21. Tokoro S, Namiki T, Miura K, Yokozeki H. A case of isoniazid-induced pellagra aggravated by secondary anorexia presenting with an amino acid and vitamin-deficient profile. Eur J Dermatol 2018;28:832-3.ArticlePubMedPDF
  • 22. van der Watt JJ, Harrison TB, Benatar M, Heckmann JM. Polyneuropathy, anti-tuberculosis treatment and the role of pyridoxine in the HIV/AIDS era: a systematic review. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2011;15:722-8. ArticlePubMed
  • 23. di Salvo ML, Safo MK, Contestabile R. Biomedical aspects of pyridoxal 5'-phosphate availability. Front Biosci (Elite Ed) 2012;4:897-913. PubMed
  • 24. Visser ME, Texeira-Swiegelaar C, Maartens G. The short-term effects of anti-tuberculosis therapy on plasma pyridoxine levels in patients with pulmonary tuberculosis. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2004;8:260-2.PubMed
  • 25. Donald PR. Cerebrospinal fluid concentrations of antituberculosis agents in adults and children. Tuberculosis (Edinb) 2010;90:279-92. ArticlePubMed
  • 26. Joint Committee for the Revision of Korean Guidelines for Tuberculosis, Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Korean guidelines for tuberculosis. 4th ed. Cheongju: Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2020.
  • 27. Apeland T, Frøyland ES, Kristensen O, Strandjord RE, Mansoor MA. Drug-induced pertubation of the aminothiol redox-status in patients with epilepsy: improvement by B-vitamins. Epilepsy Res 2008;82:1-6. ArticlePubMed
  • 28. Mintzer S, Skidmore CT, Sperling MR. B-vitamin deficiency in patients treated with antiepileptic drugs. Epilepsy Behav 2012;24:341-4. ArticlePubMed
  • 29. Yasuda H, Hatano T, Honda T, Tsutsui M, Hattori N, Ando M, et al. Vitamin B6 deficiency anemia attributed to levodopa/carbidopa intestinal gel therapy for Parkinson's disease: a diagnostic pitfall for myelodysplastic syndrome with ring sideroblasts. Intern Med May 14;[Epub]. https://doi.org/10.2169/internalmedicine.9577-22. ArticlePubMed
  • 30. Ubbink JB, Delport R, Bissbort S, Vermaak WJ, Becker PJ. Relationship between vitamin B-6 status and elevated pyridoxal kinase levels induced by theophylline therapy in humans. J Nutr 2022;1990;120:1352-9. ArticlePubMed
  • 31. Soltani D, Ghaffar Pour M, Tafakhori A, Sarraf P, Bitarafan S. Nutritional aspects of treatment in epileptic patients. Iran J Child Neurol 2016;10:1-12.
  • 32. Zempleni J, Mock DM. Biotin biochemistry and human requirements. J Nutr Biochem 1999;10:128-38. ArticlePubMed
  • 33. Mock DM, Dyken ME. Biotin catabolism is accelerated in adults receiving long-term therapy with anticonvulsants. Neurology 1997;49:1444-7. ArticlePubMed
  • 34. Mock DM, Mock NI, Nelson RP, Lombard KA. Disturbances in biotin metabolism in children undergoing long-term anticonvulsant therapy. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1998;26:245-50. ArticlePubMed
  • 35. Vallianou N, Evangelopoulos A, Koutalas P. Alpha-lipoic acid and diabetic neuropathy. Rev Diabet Stud 2009;6:230-6. ArticlePubMedPMC
  • 36. León-Del-Río A. Biotin in metabolism, gene expression, and human disease. J Inherit Metab Dis 2019;42:647-54. ArticlePubMedPDF
  • 37. Quick M, Shi L. The sodium/multivitamin transporter: a multipotent system with therapeutic implications. Vitam Horm 2015;98:63-100. PubMedPMC
  • 38. Zempleni J, Trusty TA, Mock DM. Lipoic acid reduces the activities of biotin-dependent carboxylases in rat liver. J Nutr 1997;127:1776-81. ArticlePubMed
  • 39. Hannoodee M, Mittal M. 2022 Jan. Methotrexate [Internet]. StatPearls Publishing; Treasure Island (FL): Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK556114/. [cited 2022 May 8
  • 40. van Ede AE, Laan RF, Blom HJ, Boers GH, Haagsma CJ, Thomas CM, et al. Homocysteine and folate status in methotrexate-treated patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2002;41:658-65. ArticlePubMed
  • 41. Prescott JD, Drake VJ, Stevens JF. Medications and micronutrients: identifying clinically relevant interactions and addressing nutritional needs. J Pharm Technol 2018;34:216-30. ArticlePubMedPMCPDF
  • 42. Ho JM, Juurlink DN. Considerations when prescribing trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. CMAJ 2011;183:1851-8. ArticlePubMedPMC
  • 43. Visentin M, Diop-Bove N, Zhao R, Goldman ID. The intestinal absorption of folates. Annu Rev Physiol 2014;76:251-74. ArticlePubMedPMC
  • 44. Iwakawa H, Fukui T, Fukuwatari T, Bamba S, Sasaki M, Tsujikawa T, et al. Blood concentrations and renal clearance of water-soluble vitamins in outpatients with ulcerative colitis. Biomed Rep 2019;10:202-10. ArticlePubMedPMC
  • 45. Linnebank M, Moskau S, Semmler A, Widman G, Stoffel-Wagner B, Weller M, et al. Antiepileptic drugs interact with folate and vitamin B12 serum levels. Ann Neurol 2011;69:352-9. ArticlePubMed
  • 46. Belcastro V, Striano P. Antiepileptic drugs, hyperhomocysteinemia and B-vitamins supplementation in patients with epilepsy. Epilepsy Res 2012;102:1-7. ArticlePubMed
  • 47. Jacobs JW Jr, Richter JE. In: Vaezi MF, editor. 2016. Role of H2RA and proton pump inhibitor therapy in treating reflux disease. Diagnosis and treatment of gastroesophageal reflux disease. Cham: Springer; p. 71-91. ArticlePubMed
  • 48. Jung SB, Nagaraja V, Kapur A, Eslick GD. Association between vitamin B12 deficiency and long-term use of acid-lowering agents: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Intern Med J 2015;45:409-16. PubMed
  • 49. Lam JR, Schneider JL, Zhao W, Corley DA. Proton pump inhibitor and histamine 2 receptor antagonist use and vitamin B12 deficiency. JAMA 2013;310:2435-42. ArticlePubMed
  • 50. Valuck RJ, Ruscin JM. A case-control study on adverse effects: H2 blocker or proton pump inhibitor use and risk of vitamin B12 deficiency in older adults. J Clin Epidemiol 2004;57:422-8. ArticlePubMed
  • 51. Miller JW. Proton pump inhibitors, H2-receptor antagonists, metformin, and vitamin B-12 deficiency: clinical implications. Adv Nutr 2018;9:511S-518S. ArticlePubMedPMC
  • 52. Infante M, Leoni M, Caprio M, Fabbri A. Long-term metformin therapy and vitamin B12 deficiency: an association to bear in mind. World J Diabetes 2021;12:916-31. ArticlePubMedPMC
  • 53. de Jager J, Kooy A, Lehert P, Wulffelé MG, van der Kolk J, Bets D, et al. Long term treatment with metformin in patients with type 2 diabetes and risk of vitamin B-12 deficiency: randomised placebo controlled trial. BMJ 2010;340:c2181. ArticlePubMedPMC
  • 54. Aroda VR, Edelstein SL, Goldberg RB, Knowler WC, Marcovina SM, Orchard TJ, et al. Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group. 2016;Long-term metformin use and vitamin B12 deficiency in the diabetes prevention program outcomes study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 101:1754-61. ArticlePubMedPMCPDF
  • 55. Ting RZ, Szeto CC, Chan MH, Ma KK, Chow KM. Risk factors of vitamin B(12) deficiency in patients receiving metformin. Arch Intern Med 2006;166:1975-9. ArticlePubMed
  • 56. American Diabetes Association. Introduction: standards of medical care in diabetes-2022. Diabetes Care 2022;45(Suppl 1):S1-2. ArticlePubMedPDF
  • 57. Didangelos T, Karlafti E, Kotzakioulafi E, Margariti E, Giannoulaki P, Batanis G, et al. 2021;Vitamin B12 supplementation in diabetic neuropathy: a 1-year, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Nutrients 13:395.ArticlePubMedPMC
  • 58. Gemici AI, Sevindik ÖG, Akar S, Tunca M. Vitamin B12 levels in familial Mediterranean fever patients treated with colchicine. Clin Exp Rheumatol 2013;31(3 Suppl 77):57-9.
  • 59. Yilmaz R, Ozer S, Ozyurt H, Erkorkmaz U. 2011;Serum vitamin B12 status in children with familial mediterranean fever receiving colchicine treatment. HK J Paediatr (New Series) 16:3-8.
  • 60. Akeno N, Matsunuma A, Maeda T, Kawane T, Horiuchi N. Regulation of vitamin D-1alpha-hydroxylase and -24-hydroxylase expression by dexamethasone in mouse kidney. J Endocrinol 2000;164:339-48. ArticlePubMed
  • 61. Cianciolo G, Galassi A, Capelli I, Angelini ML, La Manna G, Cozzolino M. Vitamin D in kidney transplant recipients: mechanisms and therapy. Am J Nephrol 2016;43:397-407. ArticlePubMedPDF
  • 62. Skversky AL, Kumar J, Abramowitz MK, Kaskel FJ, Melamed ML. Association of glucocorticoid use and low 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels: results from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES): 2001-2006. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2011;96:3838-45. ArticlePubMedPMC
  • 63. Miratashi Yazdi SA, Abbasi M, Miratashi Yazdi SM. Epilepsy and vitamin D: a comprehensive review of current knowledge. Rev Neurosci 2017;28:185-201. ArticlePubMed
  • 64. Pascussi JM, Robert A, Nguyen M, Walrant-Debray O, Garabedian M, Martin P, et al. Possible involvement of pregnane X receptor-enhanced CYP24 expression in drug-induced osteomalacia. J Clin Invest 2005;115:177-86. ArticlePubMedPMC
  • 65. Kulak CA, Borba VZ, Bilezikian JP, Silvado CE, Paola Ld, Boguszewski CL. Bone mineral density and serum levels of 25 OH vitamin D in chronic users of antiepileptic drugs. Arq Neuropsiquiatr 2004;62:940-8. ArticlePubMed
  • 66. Junges C, Machado TD, Nunes Filho PRS, Riesgo R, Mello ED. Vitamin D deficiency in pediatric patients using antiepileptic drugs: systematic review with meta-analysis. J Pediatr (Rio J) 2020;96:559-68. ArticlePubMedPMC
  • 67. Hoogwerf BJ, Hibbard DM, Hunninghake DB. Effects of long-term cholestyramine administration on vitamin D and parathormone levels in middle-aged men with hypercholesterolemia. J Lab Clin Med 1992;119:407-11.PubMed
  • 68. Gotfredsen A, Westergren Hendel H, Andersen T. Influence of orlistat on bone turnover and body composition. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2001;25:1154-60. ArticlePubMedPDF
  • 69. Conly JM, Stein K, Worobetz L, Rutledge-Harding S. The contribution of vitamin K2 (menaquinones) produced by the intestinal microflora to human nutritional requirements for vitamin K. Am J Gastroenterol 1994;89:915-23.PubMed
  • 70. Shearer MJ, Bechtold H, Andrassy K, Koderisch J, McCarthy PT, Trenk D, et al. Mechanism of cephalosporin-induced hypoprothrombinemia: relation to cephalosporin side chain, vitamin K metabolism, and vitamin K status. J Clin Pharmacol 1988;28:88-95. ArticlePubMed
  • 71. Shevchuk YM, Conly JM. Antibiotic-associated hypoprothrombinemia: a review of prospective studies, 1966-1988. Rev Infect Dis 1990;12:1109-26. ArticlePubMed
  • 72. Aziz F, Patil P. Role of prophylactic vitamin K in preventing antibiotic induced hypoprothrombinemia. Indian J Pediatr 2015;82:363-7. ArticlePubMedPDF
  • 73. Chen LJ, Hsiao FY, Shen LJ, Wu FL, Tsay W, Hung CC, et al. Use of hypoprothrombinemia-inducing cephalosporins and the risk of hemorrhagic events: a nationwide nested case-control study. PLoS One 2016;11:e0158407. ArticlePubMedPMC
  • 74. Shojania AM, Grewar D. 1986;Hypoprothrombinemic hemorrhage due to cholestyramine therapy. CMAJ 134:609-10.PubMedPMC
  • 75. Vroonhof K, van Rijn HJ, van Hattum J. Vitamin K deficiency and bleeding after long-term use of cholestyramine. Neth J Med 2003;61:19-21.

Figure & Data

REFERENCES

    Citations

    Citations to this article as recorded by  

      • Cite
        CITE
        export Copy Download
        Close
        Download Citation
        Download a citation file in RIS format that can be imported by all major citation management software, including EndNote, ProCite, RefWorks, and Reference Manager.
        Format:
        • RIS — For EndNote, ProCite, RefWorks, and most other reference management software
        • BibTeX — For JabRef, BibDesk, and other BibTeX-specific software
        Include:
        • Citation for the content below
        Drug-Induced Vitamin Deficiency
        Ann Clin Nutr Metab. 2022;14(1):20-31.   Published online June 1, 2022
        DOI: https://doi.org/10.15747/ACNM.2022.14.1.20
        Close
      • XML DownloadXML Download
      Drug-Induced Vitamin Deficiency
      Drug-Induced Vitamin Deficiency

      Drug-induced vitamin deficiencies

      Vitamin depletion Causative medications
      Lipid-soluble
      Vitamin A Orlistat, cholestyramine
      Vitamin D Corticosteroids, antiepileptic drugs, orlistat, cholestyramine
      Vitamin K Antibiotics, orlistat, cholestyramine
      Water-soluble
      Vitamin B1 Furosemide, fluorouracil
      Vitamin B3 Isoniazid, pyrazinamide
      Vitamin B6 Isoniazid, cycloserine, antiepileptic drugs, levodopa, theophylline
      Vitamin B7 Antiepileptic drugs, lipoic acid
      Vitamin B9 Methotrexate, sulfonamides, antiepileptic drugs
      Vitamin B12 Acid-suppressive agents (proton pump inhibitors, H2-receptor antagonists), metformin, colchicine

      Literature evaluations of drug-induced vitamin deficiencies

      Vitamin depleted Causative medications Study design Patients (or participants) Interventions Relevant study outcomes Results References
      Lipid-soluble
      Vitamin A Orlistat Meta-analysis 10,631 participants from 16 trials (average BMI: 36.3 kg/m2) Orlistat 120 mg three times daily Levels of fat‐soluble vitamins (A, D, E) and beta‐carotene Orlistat therapy was associated with lower fat‐soluble vitamin and beta‐carotene levels [2]
      RCT Patients aged 30~60 years with BMI ≥30 kg/m2 Orlistat 120 mg three times daily for 4 years Changes in plasma levels of fat-soluble vitamins Significant decreases in vitamin A in the orlistat group compared with the placebo group (−0.22 vs. −0.19 μmol/L, P<0.05) [3]
      Cholestyramine RCT 303 patients with hypercholesterolemia Dietary advice plus cholestyramine (8 to 16 g/d for 2 months) Serum concentrations of vitamin E, β-carotene, lycopene, and vitamin A 40% decrease in mean serum β-carotene (P<0.001) and 5% increase in vitamin A (P<0.001) after 2 months on cholestyramine [7]
      Vitamin D Corticosteroids Cross-sectional NHANES participants 2001~2006 (n=22,650) – Prevalence of low 25(OH)D level (<10 ng/mL) 11% in steroid users vs. 5% in non-users (P=0.009) [62]
      AEDs Cross-sectional 58 patients on antiepileptic therapy – Serum 25(OH)D level
      Frequency of 25(OH)D <20 ng/dL      		 Lower levels of 25(OH)D in AED users vs. control patients (28.2±10.3 ng/mL vs. 34.4±12.7 ng/mL; P=0.02)
      20 (34.4%) of AED users vs. 2 (6.8%) of controls had 25(OH)D levels <20 ng/dL (P=0.01)      		 [65]
      Orlistat RCT 30 obese subjects with a mean BMI of 47 kg/m2 Orlistat 120 mg three times daily for 1 year Serum levels of calcitriol 140±39 pmol/L at baseline vs. 111±45 pmol/L after 1 year of orlistat therapy (P<0.05) [68]
      Cholestyramine RCT 268 men aged 42~68 years Cholestyramine vs. placebo for 7~10 years Plasma levels of calcitriol 99±190 pmol/L in placebo vs. 91±56 pmol/L in the cholestyramine group (NS) [67]
      Vitamin K Antibiotics RCT Critically ill children who received antibiotic therapy for a minimum of 14 days Single dose of prophylactic vitamin K on day 1 of antibiotic therapy Incidence of vitamin K deficiency 15% of the total study population
      13.3% vs. 16.7% in those with or without prophylactic vitamin K treatment, respectively (P=0.79)      		 [72]
      Nested case-control Patients aged ≥20 years with or without a hemorrhagic event after using cephalosporins – Risk of a hemorrhagic event aOR 1.71 (95% CI, 1.42~2.06) with the use of cephalosporins [73]
      Orlistat RCT Patients aged 30~60 years with BMI ≥30 kg/m2 Orlistat 120 mg three times daily for 4 years Changes in plasma levels of the fat-soluble vitamins Significant decreases in vitamin K1 in the orlistat group compared with the placebo group (−0.08 vs. 0.07 μg/L, P<0.001) [3]
      Water-soluble
      Vitamin B1 Furosemide Prospective cohort 50 patients >18 years of age with an ICU stay of at least 48 hours Diuretic group (furosemide 20~160 mg/d) vs. control group Mean serum thiamin levels in the baseline and post–ICU admission days 2, 5, and 10 The diuretic group had significantly lower serum thiamin levels than the control (15.5±10.7 vs. 46.8±29.5 ng/mL; P<0.001 at baseline, 23.2±15.4 ng/mL vs. 49.0±38.0 ng/mL; P< 0.05 on day 2) [10]
      Fluorouracil Retrospective chart review 18 patients developed Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome during cancer treatment (5 of whom were taking fluorouracil) – Serum thiamin concentration All patients who measured serum thiamine level (n=16) had abnormally low levels of serum thiamine (<7 nmol/L) [17]
      Vitamin B3 Isoniazid, pyrazinamide Case report 69-year-old female with cardiac, lung, and cutaneous sarcoidosis – – Decreased serum nicotinic acid levels (4.5 μg/dL) after isoniazid therapy [21]
      Vitamin B6 Isoniazid Single-arm clinical trial 20 patients with pulmonary tuberculosis One week of therapy including isoniazid Plasma levels of PLP Decreased PLP levels in 18 patients (15 nmol/L at baseline vs. 11 nmol/L at 1 year, P<0.001) [24]
      AEDs Cross-sectional Patients with epilepsy Converted from an inducing AED (phenytoin, carbamazepine) to a non- inducing AED (levetiracetam, lamotrigine, or topiramate) Prevalence of low vitamin B6 (<5 ng/mL) 16/33 (48%) with epilepsy vs. 1/11 (9%) of normal subjects (P<0.05) had low vitamin B6 levels
      Only 21% of patients had a low vitamin B6 level after switching to a non-inducing AED (P<0.05)      		 [28]
      Levodopa Case report A 75-year-old man with advanced Parkinson’s disease Levodopa/carbidopa 200/20 mg/d for 45 months Serum vitamin B6 levels were undetectably low (<2.0 ng/mL) but normalized after vitamin B6 supplementation [29]
      Theophylline Single-arm clinical trial 7 healthy males 15 weeks of theophylline treatment Mean plasma and erythrocyte PLP levels Erythrocyte PLP levels declined from 303.3±73.2 pmoL/g to 185.1±69.2 pmoL/g within 52 days of treatment (P=0.015)
      Plasma PLP levels declined from 62.6±26.8 nmol/L to 29.7±14.1 nmol/L within 32 days of treatment (P=0.015)      		 [30]
      Vitamin B7 AEDs Cross-sectional 12 adults with seizures requiring AEDs for more than 1 year AEDs (carbamazepine, phenytoin, phenobarbital, valproic acid, and felbamate) Urinary excretion of biotin metabolites There was 2.5-fold greater urinary excretion of biotin metabolites in the anticonvulsant-treated group than the control group [33]
      Vitamin B9 Methotrexate RCT 113 patients with rheumatoid arthritis Methotrexate of 7.5~25 mg/wk with or without folate supplement Plasma homocysteine and folate levels A decrease in serum folate level by 4.1 nmol/L (95% CI, –7.6 to –0.6) and a 3.6 μmol/L (95% CI, 1.7 to 5.6) increase in homocysteine [40]
      Sulfonamides Cross-sectional 23 outpatients with ulcerative colitis treated with sulfasalazine vs. 20 healthy controls – Blood concentrations of folate UC patients had significantly lower folate concentrations than controls (9.8±7.3 pmol/mL vs. 23.5±9.6 pmol/mL, P=0.015) [44]
      AEDs Prospective AED-treated patients (n=2,730) vs. AED-untreated patients with epilepsy (n=170) vs. healthy controls (n=200) AEDs (carbamazepine, gabapentin, oxcarbazepine, phenytoin, primidone, or valproate) Mean serum folate level Mean folate level was 6.0±3.5 ng/mL in the AED-treated group vs. 6.6±3.7 ng/mL in untreated patients (P=0.044) [45]
      Vitamin B12 Acid-suppressive agents (PPIs, H2RAs) Meta-analysis Four case–control studies and one observational study Prolonged acid-suppressive agents use Risk of vitamin B12 deficiency HR 1.83 (95% CI, 1.36~2.46) [48]
      Case-control Patients aged ≥20 years – Risk of vitamin B12 deficiency OR 1.65 (95% CI, 1.58~1.73) with ≥2 years use of PPIs
      OR 1.25 (95% CI, 1.17~1.34) with ≥2 years use of H2RAs      		 [49]
      Case-control Patients aged ≥65 years – Risk of vitamin B12 deficiency OR 4.45 (95% CI, 1.47~13.34) with ≥12 months use of H2RAs and/or PPIs [50]
      Metformin RCT Patients with type 2 diabetes under insulin treatment Metformin 850 mg or placebo three times a day for 4.3 years Percentage change in vitamin B12 from baseline 19% decrease in vitamin B12 level compared with placebo (P<0.001) [53]
      RCT Impaired glucose tolerance and FBG of 95~125 mg/dL, aged ≥25 years, BMI ≥24 kg/m2 Metformin 850 mg or placebo twice daily Incidence of vitamin B12 deficiency (≤203 pg/mL) 4.3% of patients in the metformin group vs. 2.3% of patients in the placebo group had vitamin B12 deficiency at the 5-year follow-up (P=0.02) [54]
      Nested case-control Patients with diabetes receiving metformin treatment – Risk of vitamin B12 deficiency aOR 2.88 (P<0.001) with 1 g/d metformin dose increment
      aOR 2.39 (P=0.001) for those patients using metformin for ≥3 years      		 [55]

      BMI = body mass index; RCT = randomized clinical trial; NHANES = National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey; NS = not significant; 25(OH)D = 25-hydroxyvitamin D3; AEDs = antiepileptic drugs; ICU = intensive care unit; PLP = pyridoxal phosphate; PPIs = proton pump inhibitors; H2RAs = H2-receptor antagonists; FBG = fasting blood glucose; HR = hazard ratio; OR = odds ratio; aOR = adjusted odds ratio; CI = confidence interval.
      Table 1 Drug-induced vitamin deficiencies

      Table 2 Literature evaluations of drug-induced vitamin deficiencies

      BMI = body mass index; RCT = randomized clinical trial; NHANES = National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey; NS = not significant; 25(OH)D = 25-hydroxyvitamin D3; AEDs = antiepileptic drugs; ICU = intensive care unit; PLP = pyridoxal phosphate; PPIs = proton pump inhibitors; H2RAs = H2-receptor antagonists; FBG = fasting blood glucose; HR = hazard ratio; OR = odds ratio; aOR = adjusted odds ratio; CI = confidence interval.

      Table 1

      Table 2

      Ann Clin Nutr Metab : Annals of Clinical Nutrition and Metabolism
      © The Korean Society of Surgical Metabolism and Nutrition · The Korean Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition.
      Close layer
      TOP